The Sociocultural Theory Approach to Second Language Acquisition
The Sociocultural Theory
Another approach to Second Language Acquisition was based on The Sociocultural Theory (SCT) which emerged in the 1990’s and contrasted with the cognitive learning theories that, “defined learning as an internal psychological process isolated in the mind of the learner and largely free from the social and physical contexts within which it occurs” (Lenneberg, 1967, in Johnson, K, 2006, p. 238).
The Sociocultural Theory (SCT) began from the writings of Russian psychologist L.S Vygotsky. His views on child development have influenced studies on L2 language acquisition in classrooms. SCT “argues that human mental functioning is fundamentally a mediated process that is organised by cultural artifacts, activities and concepts” (Ratner, 2002, in VanPatten & Williams, 2015, p. 207). Learners can use and create new cultural artifacts which they use to monitor behaviour.
SCT theorists believe that the most important cognitive activity occurs during interactions which can occur between peers, family and at school, in informal or formal settings. They view language as a powerful cultural tool used by people to “mediate their connection with the world, to each other and to themselves” (Lantolf et al., in VanPatten & Williams, 2015, p. 210). Furthermore, they view learning as a social phenomenon, involving interactions and discussions with peers and teachers. The linguistic sign is used outwardly for social interaction and inwardly for thinking, or private speech. Research on private speech in L2 classrooms has revealed that private speech can help the speaker to regulate their speech and shows areas of difficulty in their communication.
The Activity Theory stemmed from Vygostky (in Mitchell et al., 2019) which moved the focus from the learner and their goals to the
effect of a broader communicative setting.
The Model of an Activity System (in Mitchell et al., 2019, p. 293)
It was suggested by this theory that children’s “language learning arises from processes of
meaning-making in collaborative activity, language itself develops as a tool for
making meaning” (Mitchell et al., 2019, p. 293). Applying this theory to an L2
learner, the learner has internalised the symbolic tools of L1 and can then
create more tools and meaning through collaboration to aid L2 acquisition. SCT
uses the genetic method stipulated by Vygostsky which traces the learner’s
development over time.
According to the Activity Theory, higher order cognitive functions, such
as planning are firstly learnt through social interaction. These functions are then internalised
and can then be cognitively acquired.. A pivotal concept
of the Sociolinguistic theory was the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) which
Vygotsky (1978, in VanPatten & Williams, 2015, p.212), described as “the distance between
the actual developmental level…and the level of potential development as
determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration
with more capable peers”. The importance of this idea is the idea of assisted
performance and shows both the current skills and potential skills of the
learner. The mentor helps the learner solve the current problem to build
independence for solving future problems. ZPD is different from Krashen’s i +
1 model (VanPatten & Williams, 2015, p. 214), as ZPD concentrates on the conversation
between the learner and expert to assist with gaining self-regulation, when
using the new language. Kashen’s model however, concentrates on the language
acquisition device, which is the same for all learners.
Vygotsky (1987, in VanPatten & Williams, 2015, p. 220),
describes how explicit knowledge is gained through “intentional and systematic
instruction”. The framework of this instruction is called Systemic Theoretical
Instruction (STI) which states that a concept should be age-appropriate and new
concepts interrelated and made explicit to the learner and the rules of grammar
not learnt by rote. Lantolf, Thorne and Poehner(in VanPatten & Williams, 2015, p. 221) also note,“STI is also marked by the use of schemata, images and
models to introduce concepts to learners”. This
helps the learner grasp new concepts, rather than using verbalising alone.
Most research on speech and the role it plays in SLA has
occurred in formal classroom settings. Aljaafreh and Lantolf (1994, in
VanPatten & Williams, 2015, p.212) however, researched L2 learning during
teacher-talk to view the “relationship between corrective feedback and language
learning within learner-tutor interactions in an ESL course”. They showed that
to provide effective help to a learner, assistance needs to match the need of
the learner. The help should then be removed, once the learner reaches mastery of the
skill. This leads to Dynamic Assessment, as teaching and assessment occur alongside
each other.
Swain (2009, in VanPatten & Williams, 2015, p. 213), describes
the importance of “collaborative dialogue” and “languaging”, where learners
work together to learn a second language, speaking using either their L1 or L2
language. A problem with this theory is whether it is an individual phenomenon
or whether it can be applied to a class, (Mitchell et al., 2019). The
second controversy is whether the learner can build new knowledge themselves,
without the mentor. SCT furthermore claims that there is no set order for
morpheme acquisition (Mitchell et al., 2019), as these orders can be
altered in the classroom using STI instruction.
SCT has proven to be useful for SLA studies as it
incorporates the importance of not just the cognitive, but also the social
aspect in the communication process and for language acquisition.
Mitchell, R, Myles, F., & Marsden, E. (2019) Second Language Learning Theories. 4 Routledge.
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